Badami Chalukyas - Temple Art and Architecture under the Chalukyas of Badami (6th-8th century CE) - Part III
Structural Architecture
“A silent revolution had taken place and with it Hindu
architecture, of the structural order in stone medium, was born and baptized.
This phenomenon was the product entirely of local circumstances and resources,
and was rudimentary and functional to a degree in its initial stages. As
fledgelings of the architect’s fancy put forth wings, South India was, for the
first time, provided three-fold temple fabric, of indigenous, outlandish, and
of the arche-typal forms respectively. Here, if anywhere, was the bed-rock of
the Hindu temple formulation” – K.V.Soundara Rajan
The excavations at
Nagarjunakonda in 1959 brought out the remnants of the early Hindu temple
architecture in South India from the time of Ikshvakus. These temples had artha and mukha mantapas in one axial line, prakara, gopura, dhvaja stamba etc., One of the temple has parivaralayas, the subsidiary shrines
with square, octagonal and circular plans, anticipating the later Nagara,
Dravida, and Vesara styles, says historian K.A.Nilakanta Sastri. The next stage
in the Hindu temple architecture he says can be seen in the temple complex at
Aihole. Numbered at around 70-structures during Sastri’s times, Henry Cousens put the number at 120 plus and at present may be 40 to 45 temples can be seen.
“The early
tripod stand on which the crucible of Chalukyan art was laid to produce
unparalleled amalgams of early temple formulations, in conformity to the
emergent agamic codes, is to be witnessed at Mahakut, Badami, and Aihole. The
land assimilated the multiplicity of concepts and art-impulses steadily
acquired by the imperial sweep of the Badami throne over extensive territories
south of the Vindhyas,” Rajan eulogizes.
Inexhaustible
supply of raw material for the three cities they built came from the standstone
cliffs, relative prosperity in decades intervening their major war campaigns,
and a rich and enterprising trade guilds at Aihole provided the material and
money for the monuments Chalukyas have left behind. “Thus at one stroke, the
chisel of the architect assembled as many as five different forms of temples
whose mediaeval elaborations – unquestionably profound – and whose sculptural
décor – indubitably svelte- would concern us less here than the formal
enunciations of the temple of god in the earlier stages,” to quote Rajan again.
Chalukyans
control over their land for close to 200 years except for the interregnum of
Pallava rule, availability of not only money from the trade guilds, but also
the travelling art guilds who imbibed styles form one area, carried different
styles across South India, as some historians say resulted in extensive experimentation,
creation of innumerable temples, and some of the finest till date.
Development of
structural temples under the Early Chalukyans like their history is divided
into two phases, the ones built before 642 CE and those built after 655 CE. It
has been customary for historians as seen in Sastri and Rajan to start the
journey of structural temples of Early Chalukyas at Lad Khan. This strange
looking structure first dated to 450 CE by scholars like Cousens is now
pushed to 7th century CE or early 8th CE. Leaving the Lad
Khan details aside for now, let us look at the chronology contemporary
historians tend to follow in terms of styles and their evolution.
Lower Shivalaya recognized as Ganesha Mandir
Upper Shivalaya, considered to be a Vishnu Mandir
The Upper and
Lower Shivalayas at Badami on the North Fort side, the smaller Dravida shrines
outside the Ravanaphadi caves at Aihole, and the Mahakutesvara and the
Bannatigudi at Mahakuta are now considered the earliest of the Chalukya
temples. Specific point about these temples are that all of them are built in
Dravida style. While Michell says since no earlier Dravidian styled monuments
are known at other sites in Southern India it is tempting to propose that this
idiom is an Early Chalukyan invention. Adam Hardy on the other hand in ‘Indian
Temple Architecture:Form and Transformation:Karnata Dravida Tradition’ says,
“Whereas it was once held that Dravidian architecture was imported into
Karnataka from the deep south, where it had been invented, it is now clear that
parallel, interrelated traditions developed within the broad context of South
Indian Art”.
Nagara and
Dravida to put it simply may refer to the Northern and the Southern styles with
the basic differentiator being the style of the superstructure that rises over
the garbha griha or the sanctum
sanctorum that houses the main deity in a temple. The curvilinear sikhara is the identifier for Nagara or
Northern and, the pyramidal form with dome like crowning member is known as
Dravida.
Two large temples
that have survived from the early phase of Dravida style are the Meguti hilltop
Jain temple at Aihole which is dated clearly from the Ravikirti’s prasasti on Pulikesi II to 634-5 CE and
the Upper Shivalaya also on a hilltop at Badami.
Ravikirti, poet
in the court of Pulikesi II built the Meguti temple to consecrate Jinendra,
that is why considered originally a basadi. The basadi built on a high basement
comprises of sanctum, an antarala, a pradakshinapatha, a navaranga, an ardhamantapa
and a pillared porch. At a later date, an upper sanctum with a porch was
supposed to have been which has gone missing. Architecturally this is very
significant for the later basadis the storied was a model to follow under the
Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas of Kalyana and the Gangas. There is a Jina sculpture on
the back wall of the structure, and the Ambika that was originally seen at this
temple can be seen now at the local museum. “This (Ambika) sculpture is a
marvelous piece of work, unsurpassed in beauty and elegance by any other Ambika
sculptures in India. The workmanship is bold and the plastic content of the
sculpture is unrivalled. Whether the presence of Ambika, also known as
Kushmanandini, indicates that the basadi was meant to consecrate Neminatha is
anybody’s guess. Ambika is the yakshi of Neminatha,” says Rajasekhara.
Michell points
out the next stage of development of Dravida idiom are to be seen at the Badami
monuments and first one to note is the Upper Shivalaya. Though in ruins now,
the basic elements of the temple can be seen, rectangle of walls, with passage
way on three sides approached from a triple-aisled mantapa. The outer walls are divided vertically and parapet
incorporates rudimentary model roof forms, such as barrel-vaulted shalas and square-domed kutas. Similar components are employed
in the tower over the sanctuary, which is crowned by an enlarged kuta-roof with kudus, or horseshoe-shaped, false windows, on each face.
On the western
flank of the North Fort lies the more evolved and a better preserved Mallegitti
Shivalaya example of mature early stage of Dravida style. This is laid out in a
simple sequence of sanctuary, without passageway, triple-aisled mantapa, and single-bayed entrance
porch. The outer walls are divided vertically in typical fashion into three
zones, with fully articulated shala
and kuta parapet elements. Perforated
windows set into the side walls of the mantapa
are flanked by secondary, shorter wall pilasters with Makara water carriers. There is a single-storied tower with an
octagon-to-domed roof framed by a quartet of corner model pavilions, each with
its own individual kuta-roof.
Mahakuta
According to
Michell the next phase of development of the Dravida style is attributed to the
time when they are restored to power in the Malaprabha region in the second half
of the 7th century. The Mahakuteshwara and the matching Mallikarjuna
temple both at Mahakuta, consist of a sanctuary surrounded by a passageway on
three sides, opening into a spacious, triple-aisled mantapa approached through an entrance porch, with a small Nandi
pavilion standing freely in front. The outer walls of both temples are raised
on a series of basement mouldings embellished with narrative friezes.
Perforated stone windows are headed by pediments in both Nagara and Dravida
elements, Michell says indicating that Nagara style was already familiar to
temple architects by the time.
Virupaksha & Mallikarjuna temples
The climax of
Dravidian form is reached at Pattadakkal (called Pattada Kisovolal) in the
inscriptions, in the early 8th century beginning with the
Sangameshwara temple, left unfinished at Vijayaditya’s death in 734 CE, the
Virupaksha and the Mallikarjuna temples built by Vikramakidtya II’s queens. The
scene of action as far as the great temple construction movement also shifted
to Pattadakkal by 8th century, emerging as the greatest centre of
Chalukyan art.
Sangameshwara
which is mentioned as temple in an inscription, though left unfinished has few
important and new features in Chalukyan temples. Separate shrines for
Mahishasuramardini and Ganesha have been erected in the pillared hall on either
side of the sanctum. The sikhara is a
pure Dravidian one without a sukanasi a
conspicuous feature of a rekha nagara
sikhara that gets added to the Dravida sikhara
of the later temples, Virupaksha and Mallikarjuna.
Virupaksha
temple was built by his elder queen Lokamahadevi to commemorate the victory
over Pallavas at Kanchipuram on three occasions, and the Mallikarjuna by her
sister and the other queen of Vikramaditya II as seen in the temple
inscriptions. This victory over Kanchipuram, and names of builders of the
temples as seen again in the inscriptions added to the studies and explorations
on the Pallava influence on the Dravidian temple styles of Chalukyas especially
in relation to these two temples.
“The vastly
improved design and execution of the Virupaksha temple built by one of
Vikramaditya II’s queens, was most likely due to workmen brought from
Kanchipuram, and to their direct imitation of the Kailasanatha temple which had
come into existence in the Pallava capital some decades earlier. There is a
bold beauty says Brown in the appearance of the Virupaksha temple as a whole,
which is best seen in the exterior. It is comprehensive scheme as it consists
not only of the central structure, but of a detached nandi pavilion in front,
and it is contained within a walled enclosure entered by an appropriate
gateway,” as Sastri elaborated.
Virupaksha
temple is hailed as the landmark in architectural history of Karnataka by
Rajasekhara, and this is side by side with the Mallikarjuna temple within a prakara with two main entrance, mahadwaras. Both temples carry tritala Vimana similar to each other in
layout, elevation, the pillar forms, the dvara
bandha, the ceiling pattern, the external wall projections, recesses of the
walls, the scheme of the wall sculptural patterns and forms. The inner pillars
and pilasters have been carved with narratives stories, and the whole complex
is full of detailed and exquisite sculptures of Shiva, Vishnu, stories from Puranas and pillars carrying narrations
from Mahaharata to Panchatantra.
The noticeable
difference apart from the size of which Mallikarjuna is smaller is that its sikhara is circular, while that of
Virupaksha is square.
Both have nandi mantapa, spacious, squarish
pillared sabha mantapa, mukha mantapas on the north, east and
south, a small shrine each at the front corners of the antarala, and a garbha griha
encircled by the sandhara pradakshina
patha accessible from the antarala.
As mentioned earlier for the first time the sukanasi
feature lies as a prominent projection on the front of the talas resting on the antarla
beneath, probably borrowing form the nagara influence.
The details of
the builders, the artisans we mentioned as having contributed to the debate of
Kanchi influence on Pattadakkal are the inscriptions at the temples with the
names of the artisans, Sarvasiddhi Achari, Lokesvara and Chatta Revadi Ovajja –
considered to be from the south and belonging to the same guild. While Henry
Cousens, Benjamin Rowland and A.K.Coomaraswamy attested to the idea of workers
from Kanchi being involved in construction of Virupaksha and Mallikarjuna
temples, Percy Brown contested it saying that the features in the two temples
has not carried anything that was not already familiar in the Chalukya
territory and also pointed to the close links between the Karnataka and Tamil regions.
Inscriptional
evidence leads one to believe how Vikramaditya was highly impressed and taken
in by the Kanchi Kailasanatha temple. But, the Pattadakkal temples are no copy
of the Kailasanatha temple, and the only features they have from the Pallava tradition
are the shrines for attendant deities, the Mahishasuramardini and Ganesha
shrines, and the sculptural themes related to Durga.
Rajashekara also
dismisses the idea of borrowing of Dravida features from Pallavas. He says the
Dravida architectural style orginiated and prospered during the early Chalukya
period in the Badami, Aihole, Mahakuta region. “The earliest Dravidian temples
of the Pallavas are the monolithing rathas and the shore temple at
Mahabalipuram executed during the rule of Narasimhavarman I, after his return
from Badami in 642 CE. However, the early Chalukya architects had developed the
Dravidian style almost a century earlier,” he says. He cites the examples of
complete models of kuta and sala temples sculpted above the sanctum
door in Cave III of Badami, and also in the upper floor of the Buddhist chaitya
at Aihole. “Such decorative carvings were later translated into actual temples
for the first time by the early Chalukyas,” he adds. There is a progression of
the Dravidian style taking from the cave example to the smaller shrine at
Ravanaphadi, Upper Shivalaya and the Makutesvara.
Most important point to note in this
discussion on Dravida and Nagara styles is the incorporation of the nagara
elements in the Dravida sikhara that
brought out the distinct Karnataka-Dravida style that was slotted as the
mixture, the Vesara style.
“The Chalukyan architects were innovative.
In the Virupaksha and the Mallikarjuna temples, a successful attempt has been
made to integrate a northern architectural component, namely sukanasa into the Vimana architectural
form. This particular resultant architectural form is often known as vesara that is misra or mixed. This was in course of time very well developed and
refined and became one of the most popular temple types during the Kalyana
Chalukyan period. Henry Cousens designates this particular form as Chalukyan,” says
A.Sundara.
Galaganatha Temple
Continuing the
Pattadakal complex we now move on to the other form, the Nagara or the Northern
style. Galaganatha temple specifically called rekaha nagara style is much
damaged in front with the sukanasi missing, but stands as an early example
reminding one of the Chalukyan temple from Alampur in Andhra Pradesh. Michell
feels the Early Chalukyas must have adopted the North Indian Nagara style when
based in Andhra Pradesh during the occupation of Badami by Pallavas. The Svarga
Brahma temple at Alampur is dated to 7th century and this is taken
as an evidence for the Chalukyas short-lived brush with the Nagara style in the
late 7th and first half of the 8th centuries in the
Malprabha region.
“The sikhara in particular is the most
imposing of the extant temples of this form,” notes ASI document. The plan as
it was had a mukha mantapa pillared sabha mantapa and a garba griha with pradakshina patha all raised on jagati (platform).
Like the Alampur
temple, the Galaganatha temple has square dentil heads, blind porches on the
outer walls. Latter was a new element at Pattadakal and these blind porches
contain stone grills and large sculptures. Stunning one of Shiva killing
Andhakasura. The high curvilinear sikhara
comprises four bhumis marked by the karna amalakas and has a vertically bold
jalaka of laced tiny niches. At the
top is the amalaka crowned with the kalasa.
This Nagara form
gets further evolved in the Kashivishvanatha or KashiVishwesvara temple also at Pattadakkal. This rekha nagara
temple is considered the last in the series in the locality, standing in
contrast next to the Mallikarjuna temple. It has a garbha griha, square pitha
with pranala on north, an antarala and a mantapa, mukha mantapa, nandi mantapa and indications of once
extant entrance porch. The outer walls are laid out symmetrically to pancha ratha, but the eastern side wall
surfaces are relieved with pilasters supporting pediments of chaitya arches,
that look like jalis. Some noteworthy
sculptures from this temple are the Gajasamhara Shiva, Ravana trying to lift
Kailasa, Lingodhbhava Shiva, Tripurasamhari Shiva, and bala lilas of Krishna.
Coming to the
last of the Pattadakal complex temples Papanatha, virtually the last too as per
the present day layout of this UNESCO World Heritage Site, and also the last of
the Early Chalukan temples, an amalgam of many different elements, carrying a
few from the Virupaksha, Mallikarjuna temples. Classified as rekha nagara
sikhara, the temple blends elements of – niches headed with Nagara gavaksha pediments, parapet with Dravida
styled shalas and kutas, and modest Nagara type tower with
gavaksha frontal projection. On an
elevated platform, overlooking the Malaprabha river as most of the Pattaakal
complex temples do, the unique feature of this temple are the elaborate
sculpted panels on the outer wall, scenes from Ramayana. Two unique ceiling
figures, one a Nataraja on the porch, and one of ashta dikpalas on the central hall carry the autograph of their
creators, Chengamma and Baladeva.
Papanatha Temple
Rajan considers
Papanatha temple archaic to a degree in its combination of the hara parapet of
the southern Vimana usage of the Early Chalukyas with the truly sandhra and
rekha nagara shrine lay out. “The rather subdued sukanasa, the petite sikhara
outline, the incipient pillared porch projection on the cardinal points of the
sanctum on the outer wall, the rather straight and unrelieved line of mahamantapa and rangamantapa strike the disequilibrium between the carved exterior and
the inadequate pierced windows of the two front halls; all support its early
stage at Pattadakal.” He feels Galaganatha, the largeset rekha nagara prasada
as the last.
After the
Dravida, Nagara and Vesara forms we have seen in many of the temples at Badami,
Mahakuta and an ultimate climax at Pattadakkal in terms of elaborate and finer
pieces of all styles, sometime making a linear progression chronologically and
sometimes showing a simultaneous application of various styles time to look at
some of the distinct creations at Aihole.
A structure with
low sloping roof, a square top and an unlikely name for a temple Lad Khan,
going by one of its earlier occupant, Lad Khan temple at Aihole has seen its
dating go from an estimate of 450 CE to 620 CE to finally to sometime in 8th
century. Michell calls this style of sloping stone roofs with joints covered
with log like stone strips and imitation of thatch and wooden construction as
local Malaprabha tradition. Its rudimentary, pillared hall is not an aberration
and can be seen in the Konkan coast, the Ketapi Narayana temple, Bhatkal or
Vaital temple in Goa, indicating a rationalization of the simple residential
hall in the religious context of the formative stages, says Rajan.
The sanctum is
built against the back wall, with a large squared pillared hall in front. There
is a mukhamantapa adjoining the
pillared hall. The sanctum is built against the back wall, so also the upper
storey of the temple says Rajasekhara. The mukhamantapa
has square pillars richly carved, with large-sized sculptures of Ganga,
Yamuna, Kinnaras. The royal insignia of the Chalukyas, Varaha umbrella with
whisks is also found on two pillars in this temple.
“The entire
disposition is totally inadequate for the purposes of a temple, and Percy Brown
suggests that exterior angles of the building may be traced the beginnings of
the ‘Dravidian order’ with the tapering upper end of the column and its cushion
capital with an expanded floral abacus supporting the bracket’. The
construction of the roof is also peculiar as it consists of large flat slabs
held together by long narrow stones covering the entire length of the joints
and fitting into grooves cut in the slabs,” says Sastri.
Lad Khan temple
Rajasekhara says
the Lad Khan temple was originally the headquarters of the Ayyavole guild.
Nearby Goudaragudi is also the temple of the patron deity of the guild, Durga
Bhagvati.
As per the
current layout of the complex, the much visited among the Aihole’s temples
Durga lies first even before we reach the Lad Khan, Goudaragudi. Durga temple,
is originally supposed to have been a temple for Aditya or Surya, and the Durga is likely have been
derived from the ‘durg’ a fortified lookout raised on its roof which since has
been removed.
It is the
largest structural temple built on apsidal plan in the whole of South India,
says Rajasekhara. It has an apsidal sanctum, an apsidal closed pradakshinapatha, a sabha mantapa, a mukhamantapa,
and surrounding these sections is an half-open pradakshinapatha, and above the sanctum a rekha nagara sikhara, part of which has fallen. Probably the amalaka of the temple is the one which
is seen lying nearby. The outer mantapa also has large sculptures, and the
temple has the most elaborate doorway. Some sculptures to note are the
Harihara, Vishnu riding Garuda, Siva standing against Nandi,
Mahishasuramardini, Varaha, Narasimha and at the outer railings are ‘rasika dampatis’ couple seen in poses,
including one identified as Latavesthika
Alingana mentioned in ‘Kamasutra’. The ones in the inner circle are placed
in spaced niches, alongside the perforated windows, with the niches showing
both the Nagara and Dravida elements. The sculptures themselves are considered
masterpieces of Early Chalukya art.
Durga temple, considered a temple of Aditya
“This
apsidal-ended layout derives from rock-cut Buddhist chaitya halls going back to
the 2nd-1st BCE but is virtually unique within the
context of Early Chalukya architecture,” says Michell. Sastri too alludes to
the same point, “very different from Ladh Khan is the Durga temple, which was
another experiment seeking to adapt the Buddhist chaitya to a brahminical
temple”. Yet again, credit due to Chalukyas for having created a square temple,
and an apsidal temple side by side, with a water body, a constructed tank
nearby with several smaller structures around.
We have taken so
far the main pieces of the Early Chalukyan temple architecture to see the
growth and diversity of their art. They began their temple construction
activity contributing mainly to the Hindu or Brahmanical temples as
practitioners of Vedic religion, first being affiliated to Vaishnavism and
later Saivism. Their art landscape spread beyond the Malaprabha valley to
Alampur, Kadamarakavala, Panyam, Papanasanam, Mahanandi, Satyavolu and Kudaveli
Sangama in Andhra Pradesh and also other
places in Karanataka, Naganathakolla, Siddhanakolla close to Badami and
Mahakuta, Bhara Nayakana Jalihal, Huligemmanakolla, Sulebhavi, Ittagi and
Nargund. Their contribution has been significant in South Indian temple art and
architecture, introducing new elements, forms popularizing certain iconographic
elements, utilizing a landscape and raw material that was available in their
territory. Along with that they have also left behind inscriptional records,
details of the artisans, enriching the study of Early Chalukyan temple art.
Bibliography:
1. ‘A History of South India’ – K.A.Nilakanta Sastri
A short guide to temple forms
“A silent revolution had taken place and with it Hindu
architecture, of the structural order in stone medium, was born and baptized.
This phenomenon was the product entirely of local circumstances and resources,
and was rudimentary and functional to a degree in its initial stages. As
fledgelings of the architect’s fancy put forth wings, South India was, for the
first time, provided three-fold temple fabric, of indigenous, outlandish, and
of the arche-typal forms respectively. Here, if anywhere, was the bed-rock of
the Hindu temple formulation” – K.V.Soundara Rajan“The early
tripod stand on which the crucible of Chalukyan art was laid to produce
unparalleled amalgams of early temple formulations, in conformity to the
emergent agamic codes, is to be witnessed at Mahakut, Badami, and Aihole. The
land assimilated the multiplicity of concepts and art-impulses steadily
acquired by the imperial sweep of the Badami throne over extensive territories
south of the Vindhyas,” Rajan eulogizes.
Inexhaustible
supply of raw material for the three cities they built came from the standstone
cliffs, relative prosperity in decades intervening their major war campaigns,
and a rich and enterprising trade guilds at Aihole provided the material and
money for the monuments Chalukyas have left behind. “Thus at one stroke, the
chisel of the architect assembled as many as five different forms of temples
whose mediaeval elaborations – unquestionably profound – and whose sculptural
décor – indubitably svelte- would concern us less here than the formal
enunciations of the temple of god in the earlier stages,” to quote Rajan again.
Chalukyans
control over their land for close to 200 years except for the interregnum of
Pallava rule, availability of not only money from the trade guilds, but also
the travelling art guilds who imbibed styles form one area, carried different
styles across South India, as some historians say resulted in extensive experimentation,
creation of innumerable temples, and some of the finest till date.
Development of
structural temples under the Early Chalukyans like their history is divided
into two phases, the ones built before 642 CE and those built after 655 CE. It
has been customary for historians as seen in Sastri and Rajan to start the
journey of structural temples of Early Chalukyas at Lad Khan. This strange
looking structure first dated to 450 CE by scholars like Cousens is now
pushed to 7th century CE or early 8th CE. Leaving the Lad
Khan details aside for now, let us look at the chronology contemporary
historians tend to follow in terms of styles and their evolution.
Upper Shivalaya, considered to be a Vishnu Mandir
The Upper and Lower Shivalayas at Badami on the North Fort side, the smaller Dravida shrines outside the Ravanaphadi caves at Aihole, and the Mahakutesvara and the Bannatigudi at Mahakuta are now considered the earliest of the Chalukya temples. Specific point about these temples are that all of them are built in Dravida style. While Michell says since no earlier Dravidian styled monuments are known at other sites in Southern India it is tempting to propose that this idiom is an Early Chalukyan invention. Adam Hardy on the other hand in ‘Indian Temple Architecture:Form and Transformation:Karnata Dravida Tradition’ says, “Whereas it was once held that Dravidian architecture was imported into Karnataka from the deep south, where it had been invented, it is now clear that parallel, interrelated traditions developed within the broad context of South Indian Art”.
Nagara and
Dravida to put it simply may refer to the Northern and the Southern styles with
the basic differentiator being the style of the superstructure that rises over
the garbha griha or the sanctum
sanctorum that houses the main deity in a temple. The curvilinear sikhara is the identifier for Nagara or
Northern and, the pyramidal form with dome like crowning member is known as
Dravida.
Two large temples
that have survived from the early phase of Dravida style are the Meguti hilltop
Jain temple at Aihole which is dated clearly from the Ravikirti’s prasasti on Pulikesi II to 634-5 CE and
the Upper Shivalaya also on a hilltop at Badami.
Ravikirti, poet
in the court of Pulikesi II built the Meguti temple to consecrate Jinendra,
that is why considered originally a basadi. The basadi built on a high basement
comprises of sanctum, an antarala, a pradakshinapatha, a navaranga, an ardhamantapa
and a pillared porch. At a later date, an upper sanctum with a porch was
supposed to have been which has gone missing. Architecturally this is very
significant for the later basadis the storied was a model to follow under the
Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas of Kalyana and the Gangas. There is a Jina sculpture on
the back wall of the structure, and the Ambika that was originally seen at this
temple can be seen now at the local museum. “This (Ambika) sculpture is a
marvelous piece of work, unsurpassed in beauty and elegance by any other Ambika
sculptures in India. The workmanship is bold and the plastic content of the
sculpture is unrivalled. Whether the presence of Ambika, also known as
Kushmanandini, indicates that the basadi was meant to consecrate Neminatha is
anybody’s guess. Ambika is the yakshi of Neminatha,” says Rajasekhara.
Michell points
out the next stage of development of Dravida idiom are to be seen at the Badami
monuments and first one to note is the Upper Shivalaya. Though in ruins now,
the basic elements of the temple can be seen, rectangle of walls, with passage
way on three sides approached from a triple-aisled mantapa. The outer walls are divided vertically and parapet
incorporates rudimentary model roof forms, such as barrel-vaulted shalas and square-domed kutas. Similar components are employed
in the tower over the sanctuary, which is crowned by an enlarged kuta-roof with kudus, or horseshoe-shaped, false windows, on each face.
On the western
flank of the North Fort lies the more evolved and a better preserved Mallegitti
Shivalaya example of mature early stage of Dravida style. This is laid out in a
simple sequence of sanctuary, without passageway, triple-aisled mantapa, and single-bayed entrance
porch. The outer walls are divided vertically in typical fashion into three
zones, with fully articulated shala
and kuta parapet elements. Perforated
windows set into the side walls of the mantapa
are flanked by secondary, shorter wall pilasters with Makara water carriers. There is a single-storied tower with an
octagon-to-domed roof framed by a quartet of corner model pavilions, each with
its own individual kuta-roof.
Mahakuta
According to Michell the next phase of development of the Dravida style is attributed to the time when they are restored to power in the Malaprabha region in the second half of the 7th century. The Mahakuteshwara and the matching Mallikarjuna temple both at Mahakuta, consist of a sanctuary surrounded by a passageway on three sides, opening into a spacious, triple-aisled mantapa approached through an entrance porch, with a small Nandi pavilion standing freely in front. The outer walls of both temples are raised on a series of basement mouldings embellished with narrative friezes. Perforated stone windows are headed by pediments in both Nagara and Dravida elements, Michell says indicating that Nagara style was already familiar to temple architects by the time.
Virupaksha & Mallikarjuna temples
Sangameshwara which is mentioned as temple in an inscription, though left unfinished has few important and new features in Chalukyan temples. Separate shrines for Mahishasuramardini and Ganesha have been erected in the pillared hall on either side of the sanctum. The sikhara is a pure Dravidian one without a sukanasi a conspicuous feature of a rekha nagara sikhara that gets added to the Dravida sikhara of the later temples, Virupaksha and Mallikarjuna.
Virupaksha
temple was built by his elder queen Lokamahadevi to commemorate the victory
over Pallavas at Kanchipuram on three occasions, and the Mallikarjuna by her
sister and the other queen of Vikramaditya II as seen in the temple
inscriptions. This victory over Kanchipuram, and names of builders of the
temples as seen again in the inscriptions added to the studies and explorations
on the Pallava influence on the Dravidian temple styles of Chalukyas especially
in relation to these two temples.
“The vastly
improved design and execution of the Virupaksha temple built by one of
Vikramaditya II’s queens, was most likely due to workmen brought from
Kanchipuram, and to their direct imitation of the Kailasanatha temple which had
come into existence in the Pallava capital some decades earlier. There is a
bold beauty says Brown in the appearance of the Virupaksha temple as a whole,
which is best seen in the exterior. It is comprehensive scheme as it consists
not only of the central structure, but of a detached nandi pavilion in front,
and it is contained within a walled enclosure entered by an appropriate
gateway,” as Sastri elaborated.
Virupaksha
temple is hailed as the landmark in architectural history of Karnataka by
Rajasekhara, and this is side by side with the Mallikarjuna temple within a prakara with two main entrance, mahadwaras. Both temples carry tritala Vimana similar to each other in
layout, elevation, the pillar forms, the dvara
bandha, the ceiling pattern, the external wall projections, recesses of the
walls, the scheme of the wall sculptural patterns and forms. The inner pillars
and pilasters have been carved with narratives stories, and the whole complex
is full of detailed and exquisite sculptures of Shiva, Vishnu, stories from Puranas and pillars carrying narrations
from Mahaharata to Panchatantra.
The noticeable
difference apart from the size of which Mallikarjuna is smaller is that its sikhara is circular, while that of
Virupaksha is square.
Both have nandi mantapa, spacious, squarish
pillared sabha mantapa, mukha mantapas on the north, east and
south, a small shrine each at the front corners of the antarala, and a garbha griha
encircled by the sandhara pradakshina
patha accessible from the antarala.
As mentioned earlier for the first time the sukanasi
feature lies as a prominent projection on the front of the talas resting on the antarla
beneath, probably borrowing form the nagara influence.
The details of
the builders, the artisans we mentioned as having contributed to the debate of
Kanchi influence on Pattadakkal are the inscriptions at the temples with the
names of the artisans, Sarvasiddhi Achari, Lokesvara and Chatta Revadi Ovajja –
considered to be from the south and belonging to the same guild. While Henry
Cousens, Benjamin Rowland and A.K.Coomaraswamy attested to the idea of workers
from Kanchi being involved in construction of Virupaksha and Mallikarjuna
temples, Percy Brown contested it saying that the features in the two temples
has not carried anything that was not already familiar in the Chalukya
territory and also pointed to the close links between the Karnataka and Tamil regions.
Inscriptional
evidence leads one to believe how Vikramaditya was highly impressed and taken
in by the Kanchi Kailasanatha temple. But, the Pattadakkal temples are no copy
of the Kailasanatha temple, and the only features they have from the Pallava tradition
are the shrines for attendant deities, the Mahishasuramardini and Ganesha
shrines, and the sculptural themes related to Durga.
Rajashekara also
dismisses the idea of borrowing of Dravida features from Pallavas. He says the
Dravida architectural style orginiated and prospered during the early Chalukya
period in the Badami, Aihole, Mahakuta region. “The earliest Dravidian temples
of the Pallavas are the monolithing rathas and the shore temple at
Mahabalipuram executed during the rule of Narasimhavarman I, after his return
from Badami in 642 CE. However, the early Chalukya architects had developed the
Dravidian style almost a century earlier,” he says. He cites the examples of
complete models of kuta and sala temples sculpted above the sanctum
door in Cave III of Badami, and also in the upper floor of the Buddhist chaitya
at Aihole. “Such decorative carvings were later translated into actual temples
for the first time by the early Chalukyas,” he adds. There is a progression of
the Dravidian style taking from the cave example to the smaller shrine at
Ravanaphadi, Upper Shivalaya and the Makutesvara.
Most important point to note in this
discussion on Dravida and Nagara styles is the incorporation of the nagara
elements in the Dravida sikhara that
brought out the distinct Karnataka-Dravida style that was slotted as the
mixture, the Vesara style.
“The Chalukyan architects were innovative. In the Virupaksha and the Mallikarjuna temples, a successful attempt has been made to integrate a northern architectural component, namely sukanasa into the Vimana architectural form. This particular resultant architectural form is often known as vesara that is misra or mixed. This was in course of time very well developed and refined and became one of the most popular temple types during the Kalyana Chalukyan period. Henry Cousens designates this particular form as Chalukyan,” says A.Sundara.
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| Galaganatha Temple |
Continuing the Pattadakal complex we now move on to the other form, the Nagara or the Northern style. Galaganatha temple specifically called rekaha nagara style is much damaged in front with the sukanasi missing, but stands as an early example reminding one of the Chalukyan temple from Alampur in Andhra Pradesh. Michell feels the Early Chalukyas must have adopted the North Indian Nagara style when based in Andhra Pradesh during the occupation of Badami by Pallavas. The Svarga Brahma temple at Alampur is dated to 7th century and this is taken as an evidence for the Chalukyas short-lived brush with the Nagara style in the late 7th and first half of the 8th centuries in the Malprabha region.
“The sikhara in particular is the most
imposing of the extant temples of this form,” notes ASI document. The plan as
it was had a mukha mantapa pillared sabha mantapa and a garba griha with pradakshina patha all raised on jagati (platform).
Like the Alampur
temple, the Galaganatha temple has square dentil heads, blind porches on the
outer walls. Latter was a new element at Pattadakal and these blind porches
contain stone grills and large sculptures. Stunning one of Shiva killing
Andhakasura. The high curvilinear sikhara
comprises four bhumis marked by the karna amalakas and has a vertically bold
jalaka of laced tiny niches. At the
top is the amalaka crowned with the kalasa.
This Nagara form
gets further evolved in the Kashivishvanatha or KashiVishwesvara temple also at Pattadakkal. This rekha nagara
temple is considered the last in the series in the locality, standing in
contrast next to the Mallikarjuna temple. It has a garbha griha, square pitha
with pranala on north, an antarala and a mantapa, mukha mantapa, nandi mantapa and indications of once
extant entrance porch. The outer walls are laid out symmetrically to pancha ratha, but the eastern side wall
surfaces are relieved with pilasters supporting pediments of chaitya arches,
that look like jalis. Some noteworthy
sculptures from this temple are the Gajasamhara Shiva, Ravana trying to lift
Kailasa, Lingodhbhava Shiva, Tripurasamhari Shiva, and bala lilas of Krishna.
Coming to the
last of the Pattadakal complex temples Papanatha, virtually the last too as per
the present day layout of this UNESCO World Heritage Site, and also the last of
the Early Chalukan temples, an amalgam of many different elements, carrying a
few from the Virupaksha, Mallikarjuna temples. Classified as rekha nagara
sikhara, the temple blends elements of – niches headed with Nagara gavaksha pediments, parapet with Dravida
styled shalas and kutas, and modest Nagara type tower with
gavaksha frontal projection. On an
elevated platform, overlooking the Malaprabha river as most of the Pattaakal
complex temples do, the unique feature of this temple are the elaborate
sculpted panels on the outer wall, scenes from Ramayana. Two unique ceiling
figures, one a Nataraja on the porch, and one of ashta dikpalas on the central hall carry the autograph of their
creators, Chengamma and Baladeva.
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| Papanatha Temple |
Rajan considers Papanatha temple archaic to a degree in its combination of the hara parapet of the southern Vimana usage of the Early Chalukyas with the truly sandhra and rekha nagara shrine lay out. “The rather subdued sukanasa, the petite sikhara outline, the incipient pillared porch projection on the cardinal points of the sanctum on the outer wall, the rather straight and unrelieved line of mahamantapa and rangamantapa strike the disequilibrium between the carved exterior and the inadequate pierced windows of the two front halls; all support its early stage at Pattadakal.” He feels Galaganatha, the largeset rekha nagara prasada as the last.
After the Dravida, Nagara and Vesara forms we have seen in many of the temples at Badami, Mahakuta and an ultimate climax at Pattadakkal in terms of elaborate and finer pieces of all styles, sometime making a linear progression chronologically and sometimes showing a simultaneous application of various styles time to look at some of the distinct creations at Aihole.
A structure with
low sloping roof, a square top and an unlikely name for a temple Lad Khan,
going by one of its earlier occupant, Lad Khan temple at Aihole has seen its
dating go from an estimate of 450 CE to 620 CE to finally to sometime in 8th
century. Michell calls this style of sloping stone roofs with joints covered
with log like stone strips and imitation of thatch and wooden construction as
local Malaprabha tradition. Its rudimentary, pillared hall is not an aberration
and can be seen in the Konkan coast, the Ketapi Narayana temple, Bhatkal or
Vaital temple in Goa, indicating a rationalization of the simple residential
hall in the religious context of the formative stages, says Rajan.
The sanctum is
built against the back wall, with a large squared pillared hall in front. There
is a mukhamantapa adjoining the
pillared hall. The sanctum is built against the back wall, so also the upper
storey of the temple says Rajasekhara. The mukhamantapa
has square pillars richly carved, with large-sized sculptures of Ganga,
Yamuna, Kinnaras. The royal insignia of the Chalukyas, Varaha umbrella with
whisks is also found on two pillars in this temple.
“The entire
disposition is totally inadequate for the purposes of a temple, and Percy Brown
suggests that exterior angles of the building may be traced the beginnings of
the ‘Dravidian order’ with the tapering upper end of the column and its cushion
capital with an expanded floral abacus supporting the bracket’. The
construction of the roof is also peculiar as it consists of large flat slabs
held together by long narrow stones covering the entire length of the joints
and fitting into grooves cut in the slabs,” says Sastri.
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| Lad Khan temple |
Rajasekhara says
the Lad Khan temple was originally the headquarters of the Ayyavole guild.
Nearby Goudaragudi is also the temple of the patron deity of the guild, Durga
Bhagvati.
As per the
current layout of the complex, the much visited among the Aihole’s temples
Durga lies first even before we reach the Lad Khan, Goudaragudi. Durga temple,
is originally supposed to have been a temple for Aditya or Surya, and the Durga is likely have been
derived from the ‘durg’ a fortified lookout raised on its roof which since has
been removed.
It is the largest structural temple built on apsidal plan in the whole of South India, says Rajasekhara. It has an apsidal sanctum, an apsidal closed pradakshinapatha, a sabha mantapa, a mukhamantapa, and surrounding these sections is an half-open pradakshinapatha, and above the sanctum a rekha nagara sikhara, part of which has fallen. Probably the amalaka of the temple is the one which is seen lying nearby. The outer mantapa also has large sculptures, and the temple has the most elaborate doorway. Some sculptures to note are the Harihara, Vishnu riding Garuda, Siva standing against Nandi, Mahishasuramardini, Varaha, Narasimha and at the outer railings are ‘rasika dampatis’ couple seen in poses, including one identified as Latavesthika Alingana mentioned in ‘Kamasutra’. The ones in the inner circle are placed in spaced niches, alongside the perforated windows, with the niches showing both the Nagara and Dravida elements. The sculptures themselves are considered masterpieces of Early Chalukya art.
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| Durga temple, considered a temple of Aditya |
“This apsidal-ended layout derives from rock-cut Buddhist chaitya halls going back to the 2nd-1st BCE but is virtually unique within the context of Early Chalukya architecture,” says Michell. Sastri too alludes to the same point, “very different from Ladh Khan is the Durga temple, which was another experiment seeking to adapt the Buddhist chaitya to a brahminical temple”. Yet again, credit due to Chalukyas for having created a square temple, and an apsidal temple side by side, with a water body, a constructed tank nearby with several smaller structures around.
We have taken so
far the main pieces of the Early Chalukyan temple architecture to see the
growth and diversity of their art. They began their temple construction
activity contributing mainly to the Hindu or Brahmanical temples as
practitioners of Vedic religion, first being affiliated to Vaishnavism and
later Saivism. Their art landscape spread beyond the Malaprabha valley to
Alampur, Kadamarakavala, Panyam, Papanasanam, Mahanandi, Satyavolu and Kudaveli
Sangama in Andhra Pradesh and also other
places in Karanataka, Naganathakolla, Siddhanakolla close to Badami and
Mahakuta, Bhara Nayakana Jalihal, Huligemmanakolla, Sulebhavi, Ittagi and
Nargund. Their contribution has been significant in South Indian temple art and
architecture, introducing new elements, forms popularizing certain iconographic
elements, utilizing a landscape and raw material that was available in their
territory. Along with that they have also left behind inscriptional records,
details of the artisans, enriching the study of Early Chalukyan temple art.
1. ‘A History of South India’ – K.A.Nilakanta Sastri
A short guide to temple forms
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